ARTICLES
History of India
August 20, 2016
The Khilji Dynasty
- Padma Mohan Kumar, freelance writer
email: padma413@gmail.com
The Khiljis were the second dynasty to rule over Delhi. The fall of the
Slave dynasty, which was the first ruling line of kings, was followed by
the accession of Jalal ud din Firuz Khilji, the founder of the Khilji
dynasty, to the throne of Delhi in 1290. Historical scholars describe
this change as the Khilji revolution because it marked the end of
Turkish domination. The Khiljis were Turko-Afghan in origin and the
family owed its name ‘Khilji’ to an Afghan village or town known as
‘Qalat-e-Khilji’ or Fort of Khilji. They had originally settled in
Afghanistan but later on they had made Delhi their home.
Jalal ud din Firuz Khilji
The Khiljis had served under the Mamluk Sultans when the latter were in
power. The last Mamluk Sultan Muizuddin Qaiqabad had appointed Jalal ud
din Firuz Khilji as the commander of the army and given him the fief of
Baran. It was a period of political unrest. The ruling Mamluk dynasty
was riven by factional strife which in turn sowed dissension among the
nobility. This unstable situation encouraged Jalal ud din Firuz Khilji
to stage a coup and seize the throne. The young Sultan and his infant
son were murdered. In 1290 Jalal ud din ascended the throne at the age
of 70.
However Jalal ud din Khilji did not enjoy the support of the entire
nobility who were Turkish in origin. These Turkish nobles considered
themselves as superior and looked down on Muslims of other origins.
Another reason for their resentment against the old Khilji Sultan was
that after his assumption of power, the officers serving under the
Mamluk Sultans had been overlooked when the offices were being
distributed. Hence they rose up in revolt but their uprising was put
down with a firm hand.
The Mongols under the leadership of Abdulla, the grandson of the famous
warrior Halaku, attacked the north-west frontier and penetrated as far
as Sunam. The Sultan gathered a large force of 30,000 soldiers and with
the help of his nephew Juna Khan inflicted a crushing defeat on the
invaders. A large number of Mongols were arrested. Abdulla concluded a
treaty with the Sultan and returned to Afghanistan. The Mongols who
remained behind embraced Islam and came to be known as the New Muslims.
The Sultan permitted them to settle down near Delhi and even gave his
daughter in marriage to their leader Ulugh Khan. This created a lot of
resentment among the Turkish nobility. It was definitely an unwise move
as it led to a lot of trouble during the following years. The New
Muslims were a turbulent community and proved to be a source of anxiety
for the Delhi Sultanate. Moreover, there was a change in the temperament
of the old Sultan, in due course of time. He became extremely mild even
towards his dangerous enemies. The positive outcome of Jalal ud din
Khilji’s liberal policy was that the Mongols did not attack the
Sultanate again during his reign.
Jalal ud din Khilji had led an expedition against the fort of
Ranthambhor but he realized that the conquest of the fort would turn out
to be an impossible task. He called off the campaign on the plea that
the fort was not worth the sacrifice of so many Muslim lives. He was not
willing to shed the blood of any Muslim for political or territorial
gains. But there were times when his aversion to bloodshed tested the
patience of even the Khilji nobles. For instance, in 1290, Balban’s
nephew had revolted against him at Kara. The other nobles of the
previous dynasty and the governor of Awadh joined the uprising. The
revolt was quelled but the Sultan, instead of meting out exemplary
punishment, pardoned the rebels. Malik Ahmed Chap, the Master of
Ceremonies, warned the Sultan against pursuing this policy of leniency.
The Sultan’s policy of mercy and mildness was an anomaly in an age of
violence and bloodshed. He refused to punish even thugs and criminals.
In one instance he had a large number of thieves transported to Bengal
after pardoning them. This behavior not only earned for him the contempt
of the nobility but also led to his ultimate downfall which was
engineered by his nephew Ali Gurshasp. Jalal ud din was extremely fond
of this nephew. He had brought him up and later on given him his
daughter in marriage. Ali Gurshasp had been appointed as the governor of
Kara by Jalal ud din who trusted him blindly. This nephew, who
later on became Sultan Alauddin, was made of an entirely different
mettle. He was haughty, ruthless and highly ambitious.
Ali Gurshasp had set his sights high. His ambition was to set up an
independent kingdom for which he required financial resources. He
decided to raid the neighboring states so that he could collect money
from them. He took Sultan Jalal ud din’s permission and marched to
Bhilsa in present day Madhya Pradesh in 1292. The town was subjected to
loot and plunder and the invader carried off immense spoils of war. A
part of the booty was sent to the Sultan at Delhi. Jalal ud din rewarded
his nephew by appointing him as the governor of Awadh in addition to
that of Kara and Manikpur. Ali Gurshasp’s next step in realizing his
ambition was to use the surplus revenue of his province in strengthening
his army. Jalal ud din was foolish enough to permit him carry out this
measure. He had so increased his power that in about a year he was in a
position to march southwards with about eight thousand cavalry. He had
heard about the fabulous wealth of Deogir during his campaign at
Bhilsa. His mission was to launch an attack against the rich
Yadava capital of Deogir. The king of the Yadavas, Ramchandra Yadav was
vanquished in the battle in 1295. Not only was he forced to pay a heavy
war indemnity but he had to allow the northern forces to plunder his
capital.
Sultan Jalal ud din was taken aback at the secrecy with which his nephew
had carried out his exploit in the south. Nevertheless he was naïve
enough to imagine that his nephew would come to Delhi to submit the
spoils of war to him. He moved to Gwalior to receive his victorious
nephew but he received a further shock when he heard that Ali Gurshasp
had returned to Kara. The Sultan’s advisers urged him to carry out
strong measures against his nephew for the unauthorized campaign and
warned him against allowing Ali Gurshasp to carry the treasures to Kara
instead of to Delhi. But the Sultan persisted in his blind faith in his
nephew. He waited for him to come to Delhi, and present to him the
spoils of war with humble apologies. But Ali Gurshasp remained at Kara
and sent a communication to the Sultan begging his forgiveness for the
unauthorized campaign. Jalal ud din Khilji conveyed his pardon through a
messenger who was detained at Kara. Ali Gurshasp also invited his uncle
to visit him at Kara. The Sultan ignored all warnings about his
nephew’s treacherous intentions and set out for Kara. Ali Gurshasp
received him with all show of contrition and bent to touch his feet. At
the same time, he conveyed a signal to the assassins who immediately
fell upon the Sultan and cut off his head. Jalal ud din paid heavily for
his folly in ignoring the warnings of his advisers and for his blind
faith in his nephew. The Sultan’s murder took place in 1296.
Alauddin Khilji
Ali Gurshasp used the immense booty that he had captured at Deogir to
win the support of Sultan Jalal ud din Khilji’s followers. Nevertheless,
he had to face a number of challenges even after the murder of his
uncle. His uncle’s widow, the queen Malika-i- Jahan placed her second
son, Qadr Khan on the throne at Delhi with the title of Ruknuddin
Ibrahim. Meanwhile Ali Gurshasp had himself crowned at Kara under the
title of Alauddin Khilji. He was widely detested for the treacherous
murder of his uncle who had always been his benefactor. Moreover the
powerful Hindu chiefs of Chitor, Ranthambhor, Dhar, Ujjain and Gujarat
were always on the lookout for an opportunity to overthrow the hated
Khilji rule. The Mongols too were threatening the north-western
frontiers of the Sultanate. Multan was in the possession of Arkali Khan
who was another son of Jalal ud din.
But what worked in Alauddin’s favour was the conflict among the
supporters of the previous regime. Many of them joined him.
Alauddin, encouraged by the rifts among the supporters of the old
regime, marched upon Delhi. He used gold and silver coins to win over
the people while on the way towards Delhi. The wealth from the south
ensured for him the support of the bulk of the army too. Ruknuddin
Ibrahim met Alauddin at Badauni but he could not hope to match swords
with his adversary as most of his followers had deserted him. He fled to
Multan along with his mother and his remaining followers.
Alauddin entered Delhi and on 3 October 1296 he was proclaimed the
Sultan of Delhi. He was determined to exterminate his rivals so he sent a
large army under his brother Ulugh Khan against them. Ulugh Khan
captured Multan, and blinded the sons of Jalal ud din and imprisoned the
widowed queen. Alauddin dealt severely with the Jalali nobles who were
still loyal to his uncle. Their jagirs were confiscated. Even those
nobles who had been won over by Alauddin’s money were punished for their
treachery. Alauddin justified his action on the ground that if their
support could be bought then there was no guarantee that they would not
turn against him if a similar opportunity arose in the future.
Some were imprisoned while the others were either blinded or put to
death. Their jagirs were incorporated into the crown lands while their
wealth was seized and added to the treasury.
He ruthlessly exterminated, even on mere suspicion, all those who were
perceived to challenge his authority. For instance, in 1298, about
15,000 to 30,000 people were slaughtered near Delhi as there were
apprehensions of rebellion. In 1299-1300 he had his kith and kin put to
death on mere suspicion of rebellion. Alauddin’s reign
lasted for 20 years. During his rule he successfully defended the
Sultanate against repeated Mongol incursions. He inflicted reverses on
them at the conflicts in Jalandhar (1298), Kili (1299), Amroha (1305)
and Ravi (1306). He strengthened the border defenses and set
up military outposts. Not only did he fight off the Mongol invasions
but he also led retaliatory expeditions against them around modern
Afghanistan. Alauddin Khilji was a military strategist and a commander
who could assert his dominance over the forces across all the corners of
his empire. The Sultan followed a vigorous policy of territorial
expansion both in the north and the south.
Gujarat
Gujarat was among his earliest conquests. In 1299, he sent two of his
generals Nusrat Khan and Ulugh Khan to capture the kingdom which was at
that time ruled by Karnadev Vaghela II of the Vaghela dynasty. The Delhi
army crossed into Gujarat and launched their attack. The kingdom was
captured while its ruler Karnadeva fled to Deogir along with his
daughter Devaladevi. But the queen of Gujarat Kamaladevi was captured
and taken to the Sultan at Delhi. She was admitted into the harem
and ultimately married to the Sultan after being converted to Islam. It
was in Gujarat that Alauddin’s generals bought a slave named Malik Kafur
for 1000 dinars. This slave, who was a Hindu convert, later on, rose to
become one of the prominent commanders in Alauddin’s army.
Ranthambhor
Alauddin’s ire was now turned towards Hammir Dev of Ranthambhor. He
attacked the Hindu state of Ranthambhor (1301 AD) as the ruler Hammir
Dev had given shelter to a fugitive who was fleeing from the wrath of
the Sultan. The two forces met on the banks of the river Banas.
Hammir Dev’s Rajput forces emerged victorious but the victory was
short-lived. Alauddin reorganized his forces and renewed the attack on
Ranthambhor. He was aided in his efforts by some disaffected officers in
Hammir’s army. They provided him valuable information about the state
of the besieged fort and the supply of essentials like water. Hammir Dev
bravely held out against the repeated assaults of Alauddin. However
owing to famine and the treachery of his generals Ratipal and Ranmal, he
could not hold out against Alauddin’s forces. He was killed during the
conflict. Thus Ranthambhor fell to the invading forces.
Chittorgarh
The next place to face the Khilji onslaught was Mewar, in Rajasthan
in1303. The kingdom was at that time ruled by Ratan Singh who had
his stronghold at Chittorgarh fort. Ratan Singh had incurred Alauddin’s
anger by not allowing the Sultanate army to march through Mewar during
the campaign against Gujarat. So Alauddin marched towards Chittorgarh to
lay siege to it. There is a famous legend associated with the conflict
between the Delhi Sultan and the Rajput ruler.
According to this tale, Alauddin had heard of the beauty of Rani
Padmini, the wife of Ratan Singh and he was eager to catch a glimpse of
the queen. So he went to Chittorgarh with the apparent intention of
seeing her but his prime motive was to lay siege to the fort. When he
visited Ratan Singh he expressed his desire to see Queen Padmini.
In those days women observed purdah; hence the Sultan’s desire was
considered a grave insult. He was however allowed to see her reflection
in the mirror and what he saw bewitched him. He was determined to
capture her and make her his. He had Ratan Singh kidnapped when
the Rajput ruler was accompanying him back to his camp. The condition
for Ratan Singh’s release was that Padmini should be handed over to the
Sultan. The Rajput ruler’s generals, Gora and Badal, thought up a
cunning plan to hoodwink Alauddin Khilji. They sent word to the Sultan
that Padmini would be sent to him the following morning. The next day,
at daybreak itself, a long line of 150 palanquins set out from the fort
towards Alauddin’s camp. The procession stopped outside the tent where
Ratan Singh was held captive. The captive was at first mortified at the
sight of the palanquins as he thought that his queen had submitted to
his captors. But to his amazement, armed soldiers poured out of the
palanquins. The Sultan’s men were taken completely by surprise. The
Rajputs freed Ratan Singh and using the horses of Khilji’s soldiers they
escaped to Chittorgarh.
Alauddin was furious at being fooled thus and he set out to storm
Chittorgarh fort. He however could not capture it so he laid siege to
it. This caused immense hardship to the defenders and hence they decided
to take on the invaders. The women led by Queen Padmini immolated
themselves in the funeral pyre in order to escape dishonor at the hands
of the invaders. This rite, which was known as Jauhar, was often
resorted to by the women of a besieged Rajput fort when they knew that
their menfolk would fight to the last and that victory was impossible.
After the women of Chittorgarh had immolated themselves the men rushed
out to fight the invaders. They were heavily outnumbered and soon they
perished right down to the last man. Alauddin Khilji and his forces
entered the fort, but to their horror they found that there was not a
single survivor. The fort was handed over to the Sultan’s son Khizr Khan
and a Muslim garrison was posted there.
Malwa
Alauddin Khilji’s next conquest was Malwa. He dispatched a force of
160,000 soldiers under Ain-ul-Khan against Malwa. Mahlak Dev, the ruler,
sent a body of 20,000 horsemen and 90,000 infantry under Harnanda Koka
to confront the invaders. The Malwa general was killed during the
bloody conflict and the defending forces retreated. The conquest of
Malwa in 1305 was followed by the fall of Mandu, Dhara and Chanderi.
Marwar
In 1308 Alauddin Khilji invaded Marwar which was then under the
rule of Rai Shital Dev. Siwana the stronghold of the Marwar ruler, was
besieged after an extended struggle. Rai Shital Dev was killed during
the conflict and Siwana was conquered. It was put under the charge of
Kamaluddin Gurg. Jalore also felt the weight of Alauddin’s military
might the same year (1309). Raja Kanera Deva, the ruler of Jalore, was
killed during the conflict and the fort was annexed. With the annexation
of Jalore, the entire Rajputana came under Alauddin’s domination.
Bundi, Mandor and Tonk also surrendered to the Sultan. The
frontiers of his empire now spanned north, west and central India.
Baglana
Meanwhile Alauddin continued with his policy of conquests. It was now
the turn of the southern regions to feel the weight of his arms. The
first of the southern expeditions was against Rai Karan, the previous
ruler of Gujarat who had been expelled from his kingdom by the Sultan.
Rai Karan now held Baglana in present day Maharashtra. During the
earlier conflict in Gujarat in 1299, Alauddin’s generals had captured
Rai Karan’s queen Kamaladevi and taken her to the Sultan in Delhi. She
was admitted into Alauddin’s harem and she became his begum. However,
Rai Karan’s daughter Devala Devi was still with him at Baglana.
Alauddin sent a force under Malik Kafur against Baglana in 1306. The
Sultan also instructed Malik Kafur to bring Deval Devi as her mother
Kamala Devi (now Malika Jahan) was eager to meet her. Rai Karan was
defeated and Baglana was captured. Malik Kafur demanded that Rai Karan
hand over Devala Devi to him. But Rai Karan had already sent his
daughter to Deogir in order to form a marriage alliance between Devala
Devi and Singhana Deva, the son of Raja Ram Chandra Deva, the Yadava
ruler of Deogir. Rai Karan’s effort was aimed at saving his daughter
from the clutches of the Muslims but he did not quite succeed in his
attempts. He also fled away to Deogir.
Deogir
Rai Karan was pursued by Alp Khan, the governor of Gujarat. It was
during this expedition that Alp Khan’s soldiers happened to come upon
Devala Devi who was proceeding towards Deogir under heavy military
escort. The princess was captured and sent to Delhi where her mother,
Kamala Devi eagerly awaited her. Apart from the objective of capturing
Devala Devi, there were other reasons for the military expeditions
against Deogir. Alauddin Khilji had defeated Raja Ram Chandra Deva in
1295, a year before his accession to the throne. Raja Ram Chandra Deva
had then agreed to pay a yearly tribute but he went back on his word. A
few historians believe that he was emboldened in his defiance by the
military reverse that the Sultanate forces had suffered in Telengana and
also by the relentless Mongol aggression in the north.
The Sultanate forces accordingly marched onto Deogiri and inflicted
military reverses on the defenders. Raja Ram Chandra Deva’s son Singhana
Deva fled from Deogir while the Yadava ruler was compelled to sue for
peace. He was sent to Delhi where the Sultan treated him with all
kindness. According to historians, he gave one of his daughters in
marriage to the Sultan who bestowed on him the title of Rai Rayan (king
of kings) along with costly gifts. This was a clever move on the part of
the Sultan as he won over the Yadava ruler’s loyalties and he was able
to use him as a useful tool in his imperialistic designs. Raja Ram
Chandra Deva returned to Deogir after a stay of six months at Delhi. He
was regular in his payment of tribute and he rendered all possible help
to the Sultan and his general Malik Kafur in their following campaigns
in the south. According to contemporary historians Deogir served as the
base for the military operations of the forces of the Delhi Sultanate in
the south. Critics had condemned the servile attitude of Ram Chandra
Deva. He had sacrificed his self-respect and the honour of his kingdom
in order to retain his material possessions. Moreover, he actively
helped the aggressors to trample the whole of South India underfoot. In
1309, Alauddin again dispatched a military expedition under Malik Kafur
against Warangal. The Sultanate army marched through Deogir and
Ramchandra Deva provided every type of assistance such as hospitality
for the nobles, fodder for the animals and provisions for the soldiers.
He ordered his merchants to set up bazars all along the route to
Warangal with instructions to sell the commodities at the rates
obtaining in the Sultanate. He even appointed scouts to guide the
imperial army on their way to Warangal. He remained ever obedient and
loyal to Alauddin Khilji. However after his demise in 1315 his sons rose
up in revolt against the Delhi Sultanate. But Malik Kafur quickly
suppressed the uprising and took over the administration of the kingdom.
Warangal
Warangal posed a challenge for the Delhi Sultan when he had attempted to
capture this stronghold in 1303. The Kakatiya ruler, Prataparudra had
inflicted a defeat on him them. In the second attempt in 1309,
Malik Kafur had the land ravaged. However the invaders met with
resistance from a small force at Sirpur. The defenders were easily mowed
down while the women and children immolated themselves. Malik Kafur
occupied the fort with a force of 100,000 soldiers. After a brief but
deadly struggle Prataprudra was forced to acknowledge defeat. He had to
surrender a huge booty of 100 elephants, 7000 horses and an immense
collection of gold, silver and jewelry of incalculable value. He also
parted with the invaluable Kohinoor diamond, once famed as the largest
known diamond in the world. To top the humiliation, he sent as a token
of submission his life-size statue in gold with a gold chain round its
neck. He also gave a written undertaking to send to Delhi the annual
tribute regularly without fail. Malik Kafur submitted the vast booty to
the Sultan who was highly pleased with his ability.
Dwarasamudra and Madurai
The next expedition to the south was sent against King Vira Ballala of
the Hoysala kingdom of Dwarasamudra in 1311 under Malik Kafur. Rama
Chandra Deva of Deogir provided all the necessary assistance to the
invaders. The Hoysala ruler was taken by surprise and easily defeated in
battle. He had to pay an indemnity and accept the status of a vassal.
It was at Dwarasamudra that Malik Kafur heard about the fratricidal war
between the Pandyan princes at Madurai. Vir Pandya the elder but natural
son and Sundar Pandya the younger and legitimate son were at
loggerheads with each other as Kulashekhar Pandya the Pandyan king and
their father showed a marked preference for Vir Pandya. Inflamed by
jealousy, Sundar Pandya murdered his father and tried to seize the
throne. But he was turned out of Madurai by Vir Pandya. Sundar Pandya
appealed for help to Malik Kafur who was then at Dwarasamudra.
Malik Kafur was not one to let go of this golden opportunity which had
literally fallen into his lap. He led an expedition to the far south
with the assistance of Vira Ballala the Hoysala ruler. Vir Pandya fled
for safety while the imperial army overran the Pandyan kingdom. All the
important towns and temples which were situated in the way of the
invaders were sacked and plundered. Sundara Pandya realized the enormity
of his folly but it was too late. He too had to flee to the jungles
while the imperial army advanced as far as Rameswaram where Malik Kafur
erected a mosque. However neither of the Pandyan princes acknowledged
the supremacy of the Delhi Sultan over their kingdom. Nevertheless
Malik Kafur returned to Delhi in 1311 laden with a huge
booty which consisted of 612 elephants, 96000 maunds of gold, 20,000
horses and several chests of priceless jewels. Vira Ballala accompanied
Malik Kafur to Delhi where he was received with all kindness by the
Sultan. The booty that had been brought to Delhi exceeded all other
previous spoils of war in quantity. The Sultan’s commanders had indulged
in loot and plunder on an unprecedented scale.
Alauddin Khilji’s administration
Alauddin Khilji had strengthened his position militarily so he now
devoted himself to administering the kingdom. He introduced draconian
laws to eliminate all possibilities of revolts and uprisings in the
future. According to him there were four causes for rebellions.
They are namely interactions, social proximity and close links among
nobles, wine drinking, acquisition of wealth by subjects, and the
Sultan’s indifference to state matters. The first of his rigorous
measures was aimed at the nobles. They were forbidden to meet each other
privately and visits among them too were banned. They were forbidden to
form marriage alliances with each other without the Sultan’s
permission. Drinking was prohibited and strict vigilance was enforced
through a well-organized espionage system. All these measures so
terrorized the nobles that no further revolt occurred during Alauddin
Khilji’s reign. The officials also feared to talk out aloud in public.
All lands which had been gifted to the chiefs and given as religious
endowments were confiscated. All lands given as assignments were taken
back as Khalisa lands (crown lands). The incomes from these lands filled
up the Sultan’s treasury.
The Sultan carried out revenue reforms as well. He enforced the measure
by which land revenue in the Doab was assessed on the basis of the
measurement of the land under cultivation. Land tax was raised to a high
level of fifty percent of the produce. Other taxes were also
collected with great rigor. The hereditary revenue officials such as the
khuts, muqaddams and chaudhuris were deprived of their privileges as
well as their right to collect revenue. Levies and duties were imposed
on them as well as on the other taxpayers.
Alauddin Khilji imposed these measures to ensure that there was a full
treasury to maintain his huge standing army. He personally supervised
the recruitment of the army and paid the soldiers in cash. In order to
avoid the risk of bogus registration he devised the muster roll in which
each soldier was personally identified. This roll was known as the
chehra. Then there was the dagh system by which the best kinds of horses
used by the soldiers were branded. The chehra and the dagh systems
effectively prevented fraudulent practices. He also devised a market
control policy by which the large standing army could be maintained at a
minimum cost. The prices of food grains and other commodities were
regulated through this policy. The market regulation was restricted to
Delhi and its neighbourhood. Any violation of these measures was met
with severe punishment. The chief of the Diwan-i-Riyasat or the market
control department was the Shahana-i- Mandi. These measures were
effective only during the Sultan’s lifetime. They had an adverse impact
on trade and commerce later on.
Alauddin’s relationship with the Ulema
The Sultan, unlike other Muslim rulers refused to accept the suzerainty
of the Caliph. He strictly kept his policies under his control and did
not allow any outside power a say in state matters.
Art and Architecture
He built the Alai Darwaza, Siri Fort which was the second city of Delhi
and the Hazar Sutun or the palace of Thousand Pillars. Another
achievement of his was the magnificent tank known as the Hauz-i-Khas or
the Hauz-i-Alai. He also patronized many artists and men of letters.
Prime among them was Amir Khusrau who flourished in his court.
Alauddin Khilji and the end of the Khilji dynasty
Alauddin Khilji passed away in 1316. His demise marked the end of the
dynasty. Malik Kafur succeeded him to the throne. However, this convert
did not enjoy the support of the Muslim nobles. He was murdered within a
few months after his accession. After his death, three more members of
the Khilji dynasty ascended the throne. The Muslim nobles placed the six
year old Shihab-ud-din Omar on the throne with his teenaged elder
brother Qutb ud din Mubarak Shah as regent. The teenaged boy killed his
younger brother and placed himself on the throne. He bribed the nobility
with offices in order to win over their loyalty. Prime among them was
Ghazi Malik who was given the command of the Punjab. The teenaged Sultan
ruled for less than four years. His rule culminated in his murder in
1320 by his army general Khusraw Khan who was in turn done to death by
Ghazi Malik. The commander of the Punjab next ascended the throne under
the title of Sultan Ghiyath al-Din Tughlaq, thus ushering in a new
dynasty in 1320.
References:
en.wikipedia.org/wiki
historydiscussion.net
history4upsc.blogspot.in
importantindia.com
mapsofindia.com
preservearticles.com
shareyouressays.com
A Comprehensive History of India: Comprehensive history of medieval India By B.N. Puri, M.N. Das (pgs.36-37)
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